| Basis of Authority |
Secular authority; based on man-made laws, constitutions, and popular sovereignty. |
Divine authority; based on Islamic Shariah (Quran and Sunnah). |
Religious and cooperative authority; based on shared Islamic principles and agreements among members. |
| Source of Law |
Human-made laws, constitutions, and legal systems. |
Islamic Shariah (Quran, Sunnah, Ijma, Qiyas). |
Islamic principles and international agreements; decisions guided by Shariah and collective consensus. |
| Leadership |
Elected or appointed leaders (e.g., presidents, prime ministers). |
Caliph (Khalifah) appointed through consultation (Shura) or bay’ah (pledge of allegiance). |
Leadership by representatives of member states or organizations (e.g., Secretary-General, councils). |
| Citizenship |
Based on territorial belonging; tied to nationality and legal status. |
Based on faith (Ummah); open to all Muslims regardless of ethnicity or nationality. |
No citizenship; membership is based on participation of Islamic states or organizations. |
| Territoriality |
Defined by fixed geographical borders and sovereignty. |
Not confined to specific borders; universal system for Muslims worldwide. |
No territoriality; operates across borders through member states or organizations. |
| Legal System |
Secular legal system; laws derived from human reasoning and societal needs. |
Shariah-based legal system; laws derived from Islamic principles. |
Combines Islamic principles with international law; enforcement depends on member compliance. |
| Economy |
Capitalist, socialist, or mixed economies based on secular principles. |
Islamic economic system (e.g., prohibition of interest, zakat, wealth redistribution). |
Promotes Islamic economic principles (e.g., ethical trade, charity, and resource sharing). |
| Foreign Policy |
Focused on national interests, diplomacy, and international relations. |
Focused on spreading Islam and protecting Muslim interests globally. |
Focused on promoting Islamic unity, cooperation, and addressing global issues from an Islamic perspective. |
| Unity |
Division into independent states with separate governments and policies. |
Unity of the Muslim Ummah (global Muslim community) under one leader. |
Unity through cooperation and shared Islamic goals among member states or organizations. |
| Religious Role |
Separation of religion and state (secularism); religion is a private matter. |
Religion and state are inseparable; governance is a religious duty. |
Religion is central; activities and decisions are guided by Islamic principles. |
| Historical Context |
Emerged after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) as a modern political system. |
Existed in Islamic history (e.g., Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ottoman Caliphates). |
Emerged in the 20th century to unite Islamic states (e.g., OIC founded in 1969). |
| Primary Identity |
National identity (e.g., American, French, Indian). |
Religious identity (Muslim Ummah). |
Islamic identity and organizational affiliation. |
| Governance Structure |
Decentralized or federal structures with local governments. |
Centralized authority with regional governors (Walis) overseeing provinces. |
Decentralized; decisions made through consensus or voting among member states or organizations. |
| Accountability |
Leaders are accountable to the constitution, laws, and citizens. |
Caliph is accountable to Allah and the Ummah; must rule justly according to Shariah. |
Accountable to member states or organizations; limited enforcement mechanisms. |
| Examples |
United States, France, India. |
Rashidun Caliphate, Ottoman Caliphate. |
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Islamic Development Bank (IDB). |
